THE AMERICAN MUSTANG


is one that describes the condition of the resource “that would occur in the absence of human domi- nance over the landscape.” Furthermore, “… in cases of uncertainty as to the impacts of activities on park natural resources, the protection of natural resources will predominate. The Service will re- duce such uncertainty by facilitating and building a science-based understanding of park resources and the nature and extent of the impacts involved.” Like- wise, the “Service will not intervene in natural bio- logical or physical processes, except when directed by Congress; in emergencies in which human life and property are at stake; to restore natural ecosys- tem functioning that has been disrupted by past or ongoing human activities; or when a park plan has identified the intervention as necessary to protect other park resources, human health and safety, or facilities. Any such intervention will be kept to the minimum necessary to achieve the stated manage- ment objectives.” Finally, “All exotic [non-native] plant and animal species that are not maintained to meet an identified park purpose will be man- aged—up to and including eradication— if (1) con- trol is prudent and feasible, and (2) the exotic species interferes with natural processes and the perpetuation of natural features, native species or natural habitats; damages cultural resources; or sig- nificantly hampers the management of park or ad- jacent lands…”.1 Herein lies the conundrum. Equids evolved for millennia in North America but were extinct by the end of the Pleistocene, likely due to abrupt changes in climate and vegetation and coinciding with the immigration of humans to the continent.2 Europe- ans re-introduced domesticated horses (Equus ca- ballus) to North America in the late in the 15th century.3 Descendants of these domesticated horses lived for hundreds of years in direct contact with humans, including Native Americans and Eu- ropean immigrants, and were instrumental in ad- vancing agriculture and transportation throughout the nation. Donkeys or burros (Equus asinus) share a similar introduction to the country, likely coming with Spanish explorers into the desert southwest early in the 16th century.3 As the coun- try became more industrialized, horses were no lon- ger relied upon to provide critical services for the developing country. Many horses were released or abandoned onto western range lands or remained as small remnant herds from early colonial explora- tion, homesteading, or ranching in areas around the United States. Feral horses, ponies, and donkeys are found in


several National Parks throughout the U.S. Cur- rently, approximately 20 NPS units across the U.S. have horses or ponies and roughly 10 have burros. Population estimates on many NPS lands are un- known but likely total one to two thousand burros and approximately a thousand horses across the Service (all 401 NPS units within the U.S.) although historically there were substantially more.3 Feral


434 2014  Vol. 60  AAEP PROCEEDINGS


equids residing within NPS units across the Service typically fall into one of four categories. The first category includes animals that are resi-


dent within an NPS unit and are not specifically maintained or managed as a cultural resource. Often, these populations existed in the area prior to the establishment of a park. They may have been released in the area or migrated from another extant population. They have typically been feral for many generations. Management ranges from attempting to eradicate these animals from within a park, to no management at all, often due to lack of funds or resources. Concerns regarding resource damage (e.g., vegetation grazing, damage to historic structures, soil erosion, competition with native wildlife, etc.) range from minimal to significant, de- pending on the park enabling legislation (e.g., the document that describes the purpose of the park), horse use and damage to available habitat, inter- action with other wildlife species, interaction with humans, and interference with park operations. Tools to remove animals include capture and live removal from the park for sale or lethal removal, if necessary. Examples include burro populations at Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument, VI and Mojave National Preserve, CA. The second category encompasses trespass ani-


mals from publically managed herds on neighboring lands. The NPS often agrees to comanage these animals on the edges of their herd management units and manages horses similarly to the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) or the U.S. Forest Ser- vice. Management activities may include round-up and removal for adoption or participation in fertility control trials. Examples of parks with this situa- tion are Bighorn Canyon National Recreational Area, MT, which shares management of the famous Pryor Mountain horse herd with the BLM, or horses on the periphery of Death Valley National Park, CA, which are managed similarly to the BLM strategies. The third category consists of trespass livestock


from privately owned property or tribal reservation property. The first priority for park managers overseeing this category is establishing ownership and notifying the responsible party that their ani- mals are trespassing. Once ownership has been established, owners notified, and the animals are considered abandoned, a full range of management options are available from fencing, to round-up and removal, to lethal removal. Examples of parks with these circumstances are Big Bend National Park, TX, with trespass livestock from Mexico and Mesa Verde National Park,COand Glacier National Park, MT, with trespass horses from neighboring tribal lands. Finally, the last category of animals is the most popular, celebrated, and often controversial. These are horses and ponies that are maintained as desir- able feral species as part of the cultural landscape of the park. These herds tend to be small, highly visible, and with many interested stakeholders.


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